Irfan Engineer and Neha Dabhade
IN the preceding segment of the 2023 communal violence monitoring report, the authors provided detailed insights into the prevalent patterns of physical violence. The conceptualisation of communal violence by the authors is inclusive, encompassing physical violence, attitudinal or symbolic violence, and structural violence within a comprehensive framework. This section aims to illuminate the occurrences of attitudinal violence throughout 2023, spanning its various manifestations.
The analysis is grounded in the monitoring of reports featured in the Mumbai editions of five prominent newspapers: Times of India, Indian Express, The Hindu, Sahafat, and Inquilab. To enhance reliability, these reports were cross-referenced with information from additional websites and secondary sources.
In this report, attitudinal violence or symbolic violence, refers to violent attitudes that are root of and contribute to physical violence. For example, the attitudes that members of a group or community are inferiors to others, their cultural practices or typical behaviour is not civilized or as it should be, and even harmful to the existence of others; that they ought not to be trusted or treated as equals. Such violent attitudes lead to, more often than not, discriminatory behaviour against members of such groups and even invite violent hate crimes against them. While violent attitudes may be based on religion, ethnicity, race, gender, physical abilities, sexual orientation, etc., in this report we would be primarily looking at attitudinal violence based on religion. Typical violent attitude based on religion is that all terrorists are Muslims, they are loyal to Pakistan and belong there; that by enticing Hindu woman into relationships and marriages and convert them to Islam to increase their population; that they are rapidly increasing their population in order to become a majority in this country; that Christians are converting Hindus through coercion, fraud, and undue inducements in order to increase their population. Wide prevalence of attitudinal violence normalize specific narratives, ultimately integrating them into the fabric of “social common sense.” Such attitudinal violence leads to a range of actions:
Discrimination: Discrimination in all walks of life, including in providing services and facilities, public employment, access to educational institutions, security, opportunities, resources, and services etc., by both state and non-state actors.
Open Intimidation: As attitudinal violence escalates, it may manifest as open intimidation. This involves explicit threats, harassment, or coercion aimed at instilling fear and suppressing the targeted community. Open intimidation can create a hostile environment, making it difficult for individuals to freely profess their identity or participate in public life.
Exclusion from Public Spaces: Attitudinal violence may extend to excluding members of a particular community from public spaces. This could involve restrictions on their participation in civic activities, denial of access to public facilities, or even the creation of segregated spaces, further marginalizing and isolating the targeted group.
Forced Migration: In more severe cases, members of the targeted community may be coerced or forced to leave their homes or even the entire country. This form of attitudinal violence seeks to remove the “other” from the social fabric, reinforcing the idea that they are not welcome or considered a legitimate part of the society.
Genocide: The most intense and extreme form of attitudinal violence is genocide. In genocidal acts, perpetrators seek not only to discriminate or intimidate but to eradicate the targeted group entirely. This often involves systematic violence, mass killings, and the implementation of policies aimed at the destruction of the targeted community.
The objective of symbolic violence is to invisibilise the religion, culture, and symbols of the targeted community from public space through hate speeches, normalization of derogatory narratives targeting Muslims and Christians, the favouritism towards one religion at the expense of others, evident in state spending on religious sites like temples, and the persistent endeavour to reshape history by eradicating “foreign” or “enemy” influences from historical records and public spaces.
In 2023, there was a notable surge in hate speeches, escalating from 26 instances recorded in 2022 to 33 in 2023, marking a significant 27% increase. Noteworthy, however, is that the tally of 33 hate speeches does not encompass the majority of hate speeches delivered during rallies organized by the “Sakal Hindu Samaj” in Maharashtra. These rallies, numbering at 50 between November 2022 and March 2023, contributed substantially to the overall count. If the speeches from these gatherings were to be included, the total number of hate speeches in 2023 would surpass the reported 33. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that the hate speeches delivered at these rallies received broader coverage in local vernacular newspapers, which, unfortunately, were not covered by monitoring of CSSS.
Out of the 33 documented hate speeches in 2023, Maharashtra accounted for 10, with four each reported in Rajasthan and Karnataka. The upsurge in hate speeches in these states may be attributed to their respective political landscapes. In Maharashtra, the transition of government from the Maha Vikas Aghadi coalition, consisting of Indian National Congress, Nationalist Congress Party and Shiv Sena (Uddhav Thackeray) faction to the Shiv Sena (Eknath Shinde) faction and BJP alliance played a significant role. Despite the change in government, the popular discourse marked by Uddhav Thackeray’s popularity across different sections of society in Maharashtra compelled the ruling dispensation to have a narrative of its own to shape public opinion. This was attempted through rallies where the Hindu right wing successfully mobilized a large section of the population and emphasized a distinct political agenda. Similarly, both Karnataka and Rajasthan underwent assembly elections in 2023. It is evident that hate speeches witnessed a notable increase in states experiencing electoral processes, where political rallies were held.
The hate speeches have become increasingly virulent, frequent, and notably emanate from highly placed officials and elected representatives who are duty-bound to uphold constitutional values and principles. Alarming is the fact that these elected officials actively perpetuate and endorse stereotypes that demonize Muslims and Christians, contributing to the exacerbation of symbolic violence in the nation.
Hate Speeches:
According to section 153A of the Indian Penal Code, hate speeches are those that promote ill will, hatred, and enmity. In 2023, the major form of symbolic violence was the slew of hate speeches. In the Indian law hate speeches are punished under the provisions in section 153A, 153B and 295A of Indian Penal Code. A section of elected representatives, particularly those belonging to the ruling party, indulged in hate speeches to demonize the Muslims and Christians and no action was taken against them. The lack of action by the state normalised the anti-Muslim and anti-Christian discourse, resulted in emboldening the non-state actors especially Hindu right-wing leaders and religious leaders while resorting to hate speeches targeting the communities.
As per the data collected by Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) through self-sworn affidavits submitted by lawmakers prior to their last contested election, as many as 107 Members of Parliament (MPs) and Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) in India have hate speech cases registered against themselves. Furthermore, over the past five years, 480 candidates with declared hate speech cases have contested elections to state assemblies, the Lok Sabha, and the Rajya Sabha. As per the report, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has the highest number of MPs with hate speech cases at 22, followed by two from the Congress and one each from the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP), AIMIM, AIUDF, DMK, MDMK, PMK, Shiv Sena, and the VCK, along with one Independent MP. Among the MLAs, 20 with hate speech cases are from the BJP, 13 from the Congress, six from the AAP, five each from the SP and YSRCP, four each from the DMK and RJD, three each from the AITC and SHS, two from the AIUDF, and one each from the AIMIM, CPI (M), NCP, Suheldev Bharatiya Samaj Party, TDP, Tipra Motha Party, and TRS, along with two Independent MLAs (Mishra, 2023).
Thus, as is clear that increasingly hate speeches are made by elected representatives who have sworn by the Constitution. This includes union ministers, Chief Ministers and state ministers. etc. Some are also in leadership positions in the ruling party. Emboldened by such speeches, the non- state actors including influential religious leaders and leaders of Hindu right-wing organizations are openly engaging in hate mongering. This report takes into account the hate speeches delivered by both- elected representatives and the non-state actors. Below are some of the issues on which hate speeches were delivered:
The brazenness that hate speeches are given and to understand the prevailing atmosphere of normalization of this hate, one needs to have a look at the statement given by Ramesh Bidhuri, BJP MP in the Parliament. He used anti- Muslim slur during the Parliament session against fellow MP – Danish Ali of the Bahujan Samaj Party on 21st September. He is heard saying on televised session of Parliament, “Yeh ugrawaaadi (militant) hai, yeh aatankwaadi (terrorist) hai,” Bidhuri can be heard shouting during the proceedings. He also reportedly referred to Ali as a “Mullah aatankwadi, bharwa (pimp) and katwa (circumcised). Baahar phenko iss mulle ko (Throw this ‘mullah’ out) (The Wire, 2023) ”. Bidhuri’s use of highly inappropriate language, marking a troubling decline in the standards of democratic discourse in India, was met with disturbing approval from his colleagues who were seen laughing and cheering him on. Typically, such offensive language would provoke strong condemnation and criticism from fellow parliamentarians, drawing sharp rebukes. However, in this instance, neither the speaker nor other leaders from the BJP expressed any disapproval. Instead, shockingly, Bidhuri was rewarded with an elevation within the party, being appointed in charge of elections in Tonk district, Rajasthan.
Such hate speeches from the august institution of Parliament are normalising the derogatory terms such as “Bharwa” and “Katwa” against Muslims. No ruling party MP condemned the use of such derogatory terms targeting Muslims in the Parliament. It conveys to the people that Muslims deserve such hatred and slurs and emboldens others on the streets to speak similar language or even worse.
Sakal Hindu Samaj and Allegations of “Love Jihad” and “Land Jihad”:
The most sustained and perhaps potent series of hate speeches was witnessed in the “Sakal Hindu Samaj” (all Hindu communities) rallies, called ‘Hindu Jan Akrosh Morcha’ (rallies to express Hindu anger). According to some reports, around 50 such rallies took place from November 2022 to March 2023. In these rallies, the speakers through their provocative speeches sought to demonize the Muslim community by accusing Muslims of “land Jihad” and “love Jihad”. There is no data to prove that Muslims “lure” Hindu women to convert them or that Muslims are grabbing land. The statements given instigate the people to deprive a particular community of their right as citizens and actively urging people to discriminate against them. The speakers at the rallies openly called for violence against Muslims. For instance, on 30th January, the rally in Mumbai was attended by several top party leaders including BJP MLA and the party’s Mumbai president Ashish Shelar, BJP MP from Mumbai North Gopal Shetty, BJP MP from Mumbai North East Manoj Kotak, MLC Pravin Darekar, BJP secretary Vinod Shelar, and Sheetal Mhatre, former corporator and now member of Balasahebanchi Shiv Sena. T Raja Singh, MLA and suspended BJP leader said at the rally, “It is time the Hindu community stands up against the domination by these people. There’s anger in the hearts and minds of people… Our sisters and daughters are falling prey to the systematic designs of the other community.” He was referring to “love jihad” and called upon Hindus to resort to violence against “other” community.
In another such rally, on 25th February, in Navi Mumbai where Kajal Hindustani was the main speaker, she accused Muslims of grabbing land illegally and urged Hindus to deny houses to Muslims in Hindu residential societies. She said, “Only when the women of our house come out and question the government will Navi Mumbai be free of them. Do they seek authorization to build unlawful dargahs? Then why do you need authorization to demolish their property?” she asked. She further gave a call to not rent or sell residential units to Muslims. “If this is happening in your neighbourhood, form an association with bylaws stating that anyone who is not an idol worshipper should not be rented or sold a unit”. She went on to allege that, “in Navi Mumbai, land jihad has gotten so common that currently 25 Bangladeshi Muslims dwell in one room (Clarion India, 2023)”. Hindustani is deliberately calling Muslims Bangladeshi, insinuating that Muslims are illegal migrants, a rhetoric oft repeated by Hindu right wing.
In another rally on 12th March in Mumbai, Kajal Hindustani said, “There are three major aspects of Islamic aggression — love jihad, land jihad, and the problem of conversion. For these three Suleimani keedas (pests), there is a Ram-led solution, a solution for which you will not be stopped by the political leaders, the Supreme Court, or even the media. That solution is their economic boycott (Deshpande, 2023). The call for economic boycott of Muslims is meant to spread ill feelings towards them, and calling upon Hindus to resort to an action. Economic boycott is a weapon in the war against the community on an unsubstantiated, baseless and wild allegations.
At a rally in Mumbai organized by Maharashtra Gad-Durg Rakshan Samiti along with the Hindu-Jan-Jagruti Samiti, Satish Kochrekar said “Almost all the forts in Maharashtra have been encroached today and all the encroachers belong to the Muslim community. They have taken over the entire fort premises in an illegal way, as they don’t have a single document that could prove their original ownership of that property. This way they are taking over all the heritage structures that were built by Shivaji Maharaj and stern action is necessary from the state government. Therefore, we demand that strict guidelines should be issued to remove these encroachers from our forts and at the same time the government officials under whose watch these encroachments took place, should be penalised (Indian Express, 2023).” This accusation of illegal encroachments on forts promotes enmity and furthers the narrative that Muslims illegally occupy public spaces. The allegations of encroachment are, once again, baseless and unsubstantiated, calculated to evoke hatred against Muslims.
It is noteworthy that the notion of “love jihad” is actively endorsed by certain states. Despite the absence of concrete data on interfaith marriages or instances of “forced marriages,” several states in India have enacted anti-conversion laws, citing a purported surge in “love jihad” cases. Maharashtra, in particular, experienced heightened communal tensions following the tragic murder of Shraddha Walkar, allegedly by her partner, Aftab. Politicians and a section of media used this incident to portray Muslim men as wild, aggressive and generally targeting Hindu women. This narrative permeated public debates, giving a pretext to the Maharashtra government to pass a resolution establishing the “Interfaith Marriage Coordination Committee.” Propaganda film “The Kerala Files” contributed to this perception. The fervor created by hate speeches during Hindu Jan Akrosh Morchas, coupled with political support for this unfounded narrative and the impact of propaganda from “The Kerala Files”, resulted in various incidents where interfaith couples faced intimidation, and forced the family of Divya and Imran from Vasai to call off their wedding reception. Divya and Imran were in a relationship for past eleven years. The couple had the blessings of their families. The reception was to take place in Vasai but was called off after opposition from local organizations, post the tensions that gripped Vasai after Shraddha Walkar case (Ghosh, The Hindustan Times, 2022).
The narrative of “love jihad” also gained currency largely due to the statements and positions of political representatives, no less than the Union ministers and Prime Minister himself. Amit Shah, the union home minister, during election rallied held in Chhattisgarh proclaimed that Bemetara had become a hub of “love jihad”. He further said, “OBC daughters are becoming targets as Bhupesh Kaka’s (uncle) government is sleeping”. Shah was referring to a case where Bhuneshwar Sahu was killed in Biranpur after communal riots took place. The communal riots were triggered by scuffle between two schoolchildren hailing from different religious communities. One of the reasons cited for communal tensions in Biranpur was prevalence of cases of interfaith marriages. The Hindu right wing and BJP proclaimed it to be a case of “love jihad” using this case. After the communal riots, the residents of the village have arrived at an understanding that Muslims can no longer marry Hindus (Misra, 2023).
The ramification of the propaganda of “love jihad” apart from demonizing Muslim community is primarily controlling the bodies of Hindu women and restricting women’s agenda. While such narratives amplified by the Hindu right wing also emanates from a patriarchal agenda, the RSS has partly sought to justify these restrictions on Hindu women by blaming the Muslims! Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) joint general secretary Krishna Gopal attributed the social evils against women, like child marriage, ban on widow re-marriage, and ‘sati pratha’ and illiteracy to Islamic invasions. Gopal said that in the medieval period, women and girls were subjected to various restrictions to “protect them” from invaders. Gopal added, “Temples were demolished, big universities destroyed and women were in danger. Lakhs of women were abducted and sold in markets the world over. Be it (Ahmad Shah) Abdali, (Muhammad) Ghori, (the Mahmud of) Ghazni, all of them took women from here and sold them in markets across the world. (Nath, 2023)”. Here again Muslim men and those who invaded India are depicted as lustful, virile and who raped and targeted Hindu women.
Economic Boycott of Muslims:
Another important manner in which symbolic violence is perpetrated in 2023 is the open call for economic boycott of Muslims which would result in obvious marginalization of the Muslims and edging them out of the economy. Economic boycott is used as a weapon to inflict collective punishment on the Muslim community. The entire community is targeted- including innocents with no connection to violence or any wrongdoing. For instance, in Assam, Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma held the “miyas” — a pejorative term for Muslims of Bengali origin in Assam — are responsible for the high prices of vegetables in Guwahati and issued a call for the state’s youth to come forward to take up jobs in order to “clean” Guwahati from “miyas”. He said, “Today most of the vegetable sellers, rickshaw pullers, bus drivers, Ola-Uber drivers are Miya Muslims. Local Assamese youth should compete with them and snatch these jobs (Ghosh, 2023)”. Such statements promote ill will and animosity against Muslim “miyas” accusing them to be illegal immigrants from Bangladesh and those who take away jobs.
The Hindu right-wing organizations in Nuh also called for similar boycotts against Muslims. A video that emerged from a rally organized in Hansi city of Hisar district on August 2 by Hindutva organisations like the Bajrang Dal and Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), a leader was heard making an open call to boycott local Muslim vendors and asking the Muslims to leave the town in two days. He reportedly said only Hindu vendors would stay in town. If Muslim vendors stayed back, they would be responsible for their own fate, he added. His speech was followed by hate sloganeering, with the crowd chanting “Desh ke gaddaro ko goli maaro saalon ko” (Shoot the traitors of the country). Other chants calling for the killing of Muslims could also be heard (Gupta, 2023). In a similar rally at Jantar Mantar on 20th August, Hindu Sena Chief, Vishnu Gupta called for economic boycott of Muslims in Nuh. He added, “Nuh has become the hub of terrorism and cybercrime. It needs to be merged with Gurgaon and Palwal so that the area is managed properly. A CRPF camp and Army cantonment should be set up there as well” (Anand, 2023). Nuh has a majority Muslim population. The statement indicates that areas where there is a large Muslim population is at the risk of terrorism as Muslims are perceived terrorists.
In a “dharm Sabha” (religious meeting) organized by Hindu right-wing organization called Rudra Sena in Chakrata in Uttarakhand, religious leaders called for an economic boycott against Muslims. “Don’t buy anything from them. You should trade only among yourselves…” said President of Hindu Raksha Sena, Prabodhanand Giri. He added, “The state government should stop tourism and instead promote pilgrimage in Devbhoomi..(but) many non-Hindus are infiltrating into the state. (Das, 2023)”.
Exhorting violence against Muslims:
Expressing deep concern, it has been frequently observed that hate speeches have been directed towards specific communities, unabashedly advocating violence and fostering animosity. The calls for taking up arms or endorsing the killing of Muslims are attributed to various factors, often rooted in prejudiced stereotypes. One prevalent stereotype that demonizes Muslims is the portrayal of them as anti-national and terrorists. Another divisive trope employed to accentuate the Hindu-Muslim binary in India revolves around Hindu deities such as Ram and Hanuman. These deities are frequently juxtaposed against the perceived “invaders,” “barbarians,” and allegedly cruel Muslim rulers. Notably, figures like Aurangzeb in Maharashtra and Tipu Sultan in Karnataka are particularly vilified, coinciding with the occurrence of communal riots in these states over their historical depictions.
Addressing a BJP workers’ convention, Union Home Minister Amit Shah said that in the coming Assembly elections in Karnataka, the people need to choose between Prime Minister Narendra Modi who built the Ram Temple at Ayodhya and developed Kashi, Kedarnath and Badrinath, and “those who glorify Tipu Sultan”, between those who are with “the tukde-tukde gang” and those who are “with patriots”. He added that, “On the one hand, there is Prime Minister Modi, who has developed Ayodhya, Kashi, Kedarnath and Badrinath. On the other hand, there are people who glorify Tipu. People of the state have to choose between the two. People of Karnataka have to decide whether they want to be with the patriots or with those who want India to be in pieces (Indian Express, 2023). Shah underscored the developmental achievements of Prime Minister Modi on one hand, and, on the other, criticized those who elevate Tipu Sultan, using him as a symbol to portray Muslims as unpatriotic and a threat to the nation. This rhetoric contributes to the narrative that aligns Tipu Sultan with those deemed as not loyal to the nation.
Taking a cue, Karnataka BJP president Nalin Kumar Kateel asked people to chase away Tipu Sultan supporters “to the forest” as “only those who perform bhajans of Ram” should remain “in this land”. Speaking at a rally at Yelburga in Koppal district, Kateel asked people to take a pledge and decide “whether you want the offspring of Tipu, Ram devotees or Anjaneya devotees in this land… Those who love Tipu should not remain in this land and only those who perform bhajans of Ram should” (Indian Express, 2023). Kateel was referring to Muslims when he said offspring of Tipu Sultan and his supporters. There is an attempt to promote animosity by strengthening the binary between Hindus and Muslims and asserting that Muslims have no place in India.
Narrative that Muslims have affinity to Pakistan or it’s their “natural” home:
In Maharashtra’s Nanded city, on 16th April, Kalicharan Maharaj addressed a gathering and said, “the Muslims who stay in the locality are from Pakistan. They are the ones who burst crackers after Pakistan wins a cricket match against India” (Indian Express, 2023). In Sangamner, Ahmednagar in Maharashtra, Sudarshan News editor Suresh Chavhanke referred to how certain parts of the state (Maharashtra) were “beginning to look like Pakistan” and no one was taking any action. Chavhanke was addressing a rally organized by the Sakal Hindu Samaj on 6th June. Not surprisingly, the hate speeches triggered communal riots after the rally (Indian Express, 2023). Chavhanke was repeating the rhetoric that Pakistan is the natural home of Muslims and they don’t belong to India.
Muslims as terrorists and exhorting blatant violence against Muslims:
At the meeting in Barmer of Rajasthan on 2nd February, apart from accusing Muslims of resorting to terror, Ramdev Baba compared Hinduism with Islam and Christianity and alleged the two faiths were obsessed with conversion while Hinduism taught its followers to do good (Indian Express, 2023). A right-wing leader in Samba district of Jammu was seen in a video on social media, calling the members of Hindu community to “pick up swords and be ready for war”, against the Muslims. The unidentified leader from Antar Rashtriya Hindu Parishad (AHP) in the video can be heard telling people that “war is not a new thing, and it has been done in past eras too”. The programme was held at Ghagwal in the Samba district of the Jammu division on 1st May (Kashmir Observer, 2023). Both the statements urge Hindus to take up arms to fight the Muslims. Ramdev baba alleged that Islam and Christianity encourage religious conversions, thus promoting enmity between religious communities.
There is also a threat to target dargahs and mosques in some places in India. Threatening to remove loudspeakers atop mosques used for azaan, MNS leader Raj Thackerey said, “in the past few days, mosques have again started playing the aazan over loudspeaker. Either the government dismantle them, or the MNS will do it in their own way”. He further gave an ultimatum to the Mumbai Commissioner and the state government that they demolish an allegedly “illegal dargah” off the coastline of minority-dominated Mahim, or else the MNS activists would build a Ganesh temple next. After Thackrey demanded action, this alleged “illegal” structure in Mahim, Mumbai, which was over a century old was demolished (Devasia, 2023).
Madrassa- A sign of backwardness:
Madrassas where religious instruction about Islam is imparted along with other subjects are increasingly being delegitimized by the state. Earlier viewed as “dens of terrorism”, now madrassas are viewed as obsolete and undesirable. This discourse is especially dominant in Assam where the Chief Minister has been targeting madrassa. Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma has said in Belagavi, Karnataka that he intends to shut down all madrasas in his state, maintaining that they are not needed in “New India”. He said, “I come from Assam, where everyday people arrive from Bangladesh. There is a threat to our culture, traditions. I have shut down 600 madrasas, but my intention is to shut down all madrasas. It was said how can you say such a thing? I replied I can say such a thing because we don’t need madrasas, we need doctors and engineers. Schools, colleges and universities are our need,” he said, adding “there is no need for madrasas in New India (Indian Express, 2023)”. Madrassas are perceived to be centres of religious learning, mostly of radicalization of Muslims. Sarma sought to promote the image of backwardness of madrassas.
During a rally in Tijara on November 1, Sandeep Dayma from BJP said the Gurudwaras that have come up in the desert state will become “open sores” and should be uprooted. Later, Sandeep Dayma issued an apology, claiming that it was a “slip of tongue”. “I wanted to say ‘masjid-madrasa’, but somehow said Gurudwara,” Dayma said in a video (Jha, 2023).
Muslim Kings and India:
No patriotic Muslim can have regard for Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, Maharashtra Deputy Chief Minister and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) leader Devendra Fadnavis claimed while remarking that the minority community in Maharashtra and India were “not Aurangzeb’s descendants”. “Nobody in either Maharashtra or in the country has Aurangzeb’s blood running in them. So, who are the progeny of Aurangzeb that have risen suddenly? The Muslims in this country are not his descendants…Aurangzeb had come here to oppress Hindus. Tales of his atrocities can run to thousands of pages. So, no patriotic Muslim can regard Aurangzeb,” (Banerjee, 2023). Mr Fadnavis was speaking in Nagpur and implied that Muslims (progeny of Aurangzeb) have no place in India. He sought to reinforce the rhetoric that Aurangzeb was anti-Hindu.
Union Minister of State for Law and Justice Satya Pal Singh Baghel, “Tolerant Muslims can be counted on fingers. Their numbers are not even in thousands. Even that is a tactic. It is to stay in public life with a mask. This route then leads to the house of the Governor and Vice President or Vice Chancellor. But when they retire from there, they begin to speak their mind”. He further said, “I have never agreed with (Ram Manohar) Lohia ji’s views that Ghouri and Ghaznavi were looters while Akbar, Dara Shukoh and Razia Sultan are our ancestors. The Delhi sultanate was run based on Shariat. It was a hardline regime (Financial Express, 2023)”. This statement implied that all Muslims are intolerant including those holding important public positions.
Christians and Conversions:
On 31st March, Munirathna, Horticulture Minister in the Basavaraj Bommai government in Karnataka, said, “Christians are converting people in this moment also. Conversion is maximum in the slums. In places where 1,400 people are there, 400 have been converted. If they come (for conversion) then kick them out or give a complaint at the police station (Indian Express , 2023).”
Other forms of Exclusion and Invisibilization of Muslims:
Cinema and Religion:
Cinema is a powerful medium of social messaging. Cinema is increasingly used to reinforce the dominant narrative and ideology by regulating it in multiple ways. For instance, A ‘dharm (religion) censor board’ is set up to check the insult of Hindu deities and culture in films, documentaries, web series and other mediums of entertainment. A 10-member censor board was constituted under the chairmanship of Shankaracharya Avimukteshwaranand Saraswati to check defamation of Hindu traditions. This board would act as a guide to prevent any filming or broadcast of a video or audio insulting Hindu gods and goddesses or cursing the culture. Steps would be taken through the board to stop the production of films that insulted Hindu deities. On the other hand, any cinema or art form which portray the ruling dispensation in a critical light is not tolerated and this is promoting ‘cancel culture’. The police cracked down on the students of Jamia Milia Islamia University in Delhi for wanting to watch the BBC documentary on Prime Minister. The police cancelled the scheduled screening on the campus and detained the students. At the same time, the Prime Minister is seen promoting certain films which suits the narratives of the ruling party. This reflected in his support for the film ‘The Kerala Files’. Prime Minister Modi reportedly said, “Such a beautiful state (Kerala) of the country, where people are hardworking and talented. This ‘Kerala Story’ film brings out terror conspiracies happening in that state. It is unfortunate that Congress can be seen standing with this terror trend that is seeking to ruin the country (Times of India, 2023).”
State Spending on promotion of religion:
Gujarat:
The Gujarat government sanctioned Rs 37.80 crore towards the Gujarat Pavitra Yatradham Development Board (GPYVB) for the development of village level small shrines of different institutions/trusts. Out of which, Rs 7.45 crores have been sanctioned for the development of 4 shrines in Vadodara district. These 4 shrines in Vadodara district include Sri Vyaseshwar Mahadev at Barkal in Shinor Taluk, Sri Garhbhavani Mataji Temple at Dabhoi, Sri Bhathiji Temple at Raipur and Sri Mahisagar Mata Temple at Dabka in Padra Taluka. Similarly, for the development of 6 shrines in Mehsana district, Rs. 15.66 crore works have been sanctioned. These shrines include Sri Thakorji temple at Upera in Unjha taluka, Sri Neelkantheshwar Mahadev temple at Unawa in Unjha, Sri Hanuman temple and Sri Shanidev temple, Sri Dashama temple at Kadi and Sri Krishna temple at Valam in Visanagar taluka. Rs 4.48 crores is sanctioned for the work of beautification of Shree Khodiar Mata Mandir and Lake at Vurana of Sami Taluka in Patan district. A sanction of Rs 1.64 crore has been given for the development works of Shree Khodaldham temple at Kagawad in Jetpur taluka in Rajkot district.
A sanction of Rs 1.30 crore has been given for the development works of Sri Riddhi-Sidhi Ganapati Temple at Medhasan in Modasa taluka in Aravalli district and of Rs 47.57 lakhs has been given for the development works of the state government-owned Shri Chandraswara Mahadev Temple at Chandrasan in Mehsana district. Rs 2.70 crore is sanctioned for the development works of the Shri Bhuteshwar Mahadev Temple at Bhutiavasana in Patan district and Rs. 4.09 crore approval is given for Bhetadiya Bhan mandir of Dholka taluka (Desh Gujarat, 2023).
Haryana:
There was a substantial jump in the budget allocated to protection of ‘gaushalas’-housing stray cattle in 2023-24. The provision for the Haryana Gau Sewa Aayog is proposed to be increased to Rs. 400 crores in 2023-24 from the present allocation of Rs 40 crores (Vasudeva, 2023).
Karnataka:
According to some reports, the then Karnataka chief minister Basavaraj Bommai had allocated Rs 1,000 crore for the development and renovation of temples and mutts (a monastery in Hinduism), apart from grants to specific temples, in the state’s 2023-24 budget (Sundar, 2023).
Bihar:
Bihar Chief Minister Nitesh Kumar sanctioned Rs. 72-crores plan to redevelop the Punourdham in Sitamarhi, which is believed to be the birthplace of Hindu deity Sita, the consort of Lord Ram (Singh, 2023).
Madhya Pradesh:
The Madhya Pradesh government has sanctioned construction of Hanuman Lok at Jamsamwali temple at a cost of Rs 35 crores on 26-acre land on the pattern of Mahakal Lok in Ujjain (Gupta S. , 2023).
Maharashtra:
The Maharashtra government approved the Pandharpur Temple Development Plan worth Rs 73.80 crores and the Akkalkot Pilgrimage Development Plan worth Rs 368 crores. CM Shinde also distributed a fund of Rs 10 crores to the Pandharpur Municipal Council for the repair of roads. CM Shinde also increased the travel subsidy to Pandharpur from Rs. 5 crores to Rs. 10 crores (Marpakwar, 2023).
Odisha:
The Odisha government approved of an increase of Rs. 1000 crores – from Rs. 3208 crores to Rs. 4224.22 crores- in total cost outlay for an Augmentation of Basic Amenities and Development of Heritage and Architecture (ABADHA) scheme that aims to transform basic infrastructure in Puri town which is famous for the Lord Jagannath Temple. Under the ABADHA scheme, development of the heritage security zone around the 12th Century Shree Jagannath Temple, Shree Setu project, Musa River revival plan, Jagannath Ballav pilgrim centre, housing projects, Puri Lake development project, upgradation of Raghunandan Library, Acharya Harihar square re-development project, Atharnala heritage project, Matha Development Initiative and development of heritage lakes are being taken up (Barik, 2023).
Punjab:
Punjab Chief Minister Bhagwant Mann launched the Mukh Mantri Tirath Yatra scheme, providing free travel, lodging, and other facilities for residents wishing to undertake pilgrimages. The scheme, which will cost Rs. 40 crores ($5.6 million), allows pilgrims to visit religious sites across the country on air-conditioned trains and buses. Free food, accommodation, local travel, and medical assistance will also be provided. The scheme will last for three months and is open to all residents of Punjab. Under this Rs. 40-crores scheme, which started on the birth anniversary of Sikhism founder Guru Nanak, pilgrims will be able to visit religious places such as Hazur Sahib in Nanded, Patna Sahib, Anandpur Sahib, Talwandi Sabo, Varanasi, Mathura, Vrindavan, Mata Naina Devi temple, Chintpurni, Ajmer Sharif among others on air-conditioned (AC) trains and buses free of charge (Hindustan Times, 2023).
Uttar Pradesh:
A budget of Rs 133 crores has been sanctioned by the UP government to provide proper facilities and amenities for the large number of tourists and devotees who come to Ayodhya. The amount will be utilised in phases to provide toilets, information centres and streamline the movement of pedestrians who throng the religious sites in the temple town.
The UP government allocated Rs 2,500 crores for the preparations of Maha Kumbh Mela 2025 against Rs 621.55 crore for the financial year 2022-23. The UP government has sanctioned Rs 50 crores in the current financial year for the integrated tourism development of Shakti Peeth Maa Shakumbhari Devi Temple and Rs 40 crores for the integrated development of Prayagraj. Furthermore, provision of Rs 2.50 crore has been made for the establishment of Uttar Pradesh Eco Tourism, Lucknow Board and Rs 2.50 crore for Shri Naimisharanya Dham Teerth Vikas Parishad (Economic Times, 2023).
In a bid to promote Hindu religion, the Uttar Pradesh government has ordered district magistrates (DMs) to organise temple events, including recitation of Durga Saptashati and Ramcharitmanas during Chaitra Navratri and Ram Navami festivals. All DMs will be given Rs 1 lakh each for payment to artistes performing at the events, said the order passed by Mukesh Meshram, principal secretary in the state’s culture department, on March 10. It is worth noting that the events which will be held at government (public) expense (Chandra , 2023).
West Bengal:
The West Bengal Government is likely to spend Rs. 150 crore for the Gangasagar mela, Minister Aroop Biswas announced (Singh S. S., 2023).
Telangana:
Telangana CM K Chandrashekar Rao announced a Rs 1,000-crores plan to renovate the Kondagattu temple dedicated to Hanuman in Jagtial, 200km from Hyderabad (Koride, 2023).
Assam:
A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for ‘Riverine based tourism Circuit’ is signed in Assam. The project is being developed under the Sagarmala Programme at an initial cost of Rs.40-45 crores. This Sagarmala project will connect the seven historic temples namely Kamakhya, Pandunath, Ashwaklanta, Doul Govinda, Umananda, Chakreshwar and Auniati Satra situated in Guwahati (North East Today, 2023).
Additionally, under the Assam Darshan Scheme, 8000 namghars will be preserved by the government by providing Rs. 2.5 lakhs to each. Furthermore, under Assam Darshan Scheme, Rs. 15 lakhs each will provided for Assam religious places such as Namghar, Mandir, Mosque, Church which are old for more than 100 years. Rs. 180 crores have been allocated for Assam Darshan Scheme by the government in the budget (Guwahati Plus, 2023).
Rajasthan:
The Congress government in Rajasthan has sanctioned funds amounting to Rs. 13.48 crores for development projects at temples and dargahs in three districts to promote pilgrimage and religious tourism. The religious places are situated in Nagaur, Jaisalmer and Alwar districts (The Hindu, 2023). The Rajasthan government will spend over Rs. 24 crores to promote religious tourism and develop various infrastructure facilities for pilgrims. A sum of over Rs. 3 crores have been given for Butati in Nagaur district. Also, around Rs. 1.65 crore has been given to Ghatveshwar Mahadev Temple, and over Rs. 1.6 crore to Harmal Das Ji Maharaj Temple, among others. Rs. 1.5 crores have been sanctioned for development works at the historic religious tourist place Shri Kale Dungar Rai Mandir complex located in Jaisalmer. Over Rs. 4 crores were sanctioned for the development work of Mataji Temple and Ganga Mata Temple, Talvriksha, located at Bansur Fort, in the Alwar district. Besides, renovation and upgradation works of various tourist spots will be undertaken. Rs. 10 crores were approved for development work. In this, over Rs. 3.8 crore is for Shree Thakur Ji Mandir Dhipri in Kota, over Rs. 2.4 crore for the ancient Shiva temple at Pipalda, and Rs. 1.45 crore for the ancient Charbhuja temple at Sinhad in Rajsamand, among others (Sharma, 2023).
Expulsion of Muslims from Public Spaces:
In Uttarkashi in Uttarakhand saw a sustained campaign and threats to Muslims to leave Uttarkashi (Times of India, 2023). This threat of expulsion prompted Muslim bodies to reach out to Amit Shah, Union Home Minister to intervene. In the same incident, amid the ongoing communal tension in Uttarkashi district following the arrest of two men, including one from the Muslim community, for allegedly trying to “abduct” a minor girl of a different faith, members of right-wing groups have been meeting Hindu landlords in Purola town and asking them to get shops and houses of Muslims “vacated”. The development comes after notices asking Muslim shopkeepers to leave or “prepare for consequences” were found pasted on their shops. They were given a deadline of June 15 to flee or “face action”. Over 30 shops have remained shut for more than a month. Though police removed some of the posters, Muslims in the Uttarkashi town have alleged that the tactics to intimidate them have only increased, with even old families settled for decades now being targeted. Earlier, it was the “outsiders” who were at the receiving end of the threats. Most Muslims also fled Purola. Only after the High Court directed the state to act to defuse tensions, the Muslims stopped fleeing.
A PIL was filed at the Allahabad High Court seeking a ban on entry of “non-Hindus” into the Gyanvapi compound to prevent damage to purported “Hindu signs/symbols found during a (district) court-mandated survey”. The PIL had sought directives to the Uttar Pradesh government and the Varanasi administration to “seal the entire Gyanvapi mosque” without affecting an ASI survey now underway at the disputed site. The PIL was dismissed.
On the 13th of May in Trimbakeshwar, Maharashtra, a religious procession was led by the town’s Muslim community comprising of more than 25–30 participants. Upon reaching the Trimbakeshwar temple, a group of young individuals, in adherence to tradition, attempted to stop at the north door of the temple. Their intention was to stand on the inside stairs to fan incense (dhoop) in the general direction of the deity, a practice upheld for many years. However, security officers stationed there prevented them from ascending the steps.
A notice board positioned at the temple entrance explicitly states that non-Muslims are prohibited from entering the premises. Subsequently, a FIR (First Information Report) was lodged against four individuals under the Indian Penal Code section 295, which pertains to injuring or defiling a place of worship with the intent to insult a religion. The complaint leading to this legal action was filed by Shri Trimbakeshwar Devasthan Trust, citing provisions from its trust constitution.
Invisibilising of Muslim heritage in Educational Institutions:
A career guidance seminar, which started off with a small Islamic prayer at Maharaja Sayajirao Gaikwad Arts, Science and Commerce College in Malegaon, Maharashtra led to the suspension of the college principal, who has now been booked by police. The college is run by a Sena (UBT) leader and former BJP MLC Dr Apoorva Hiray. The FIR was filed after right wing members protested against the event alleging that students were being lured towards Islam. Maharashtra’s Ports Development and Mining Department Minister Dada Bhuse also sought action against those responsible for the event.
The playing of Azaan over a Mumbai suburban school’s public address system during the morning assembly snowballed into a storm, leading to the suspension of a staff member. A 30-second clip of the Islamic call to prayer originating from the school in Kandivali was recorded by a group of morning walkers and circulated online. Soon parents gather outside the Kapol Vidyanidhi International School (ICSE board). Demonstrations by the BJP, MNS and Eknath Shinde faction of Shiv Sena ensued. Police bandobast had to be deployed to avert a law and order situation. School principal Reshma Hedge attempted to pacify parents and political outfits, by saying the prayer was an initiative to educate students on various faiths. However, with protesting parents threatening to sit on strike on the school premises, the teacher who played the Azaan was suspended, pending inquiry. A Vedic song was also played to pacify the protestors.
A Hindi teacher with the Symbiosis Arts and Commerce junior college, Pune was arrested on the charge of outraging religious feeling, following ABVP members’ protest outside the institution for two days after a video clip of his alleged remarks got circulated on the social media. The Deccan Gymkhana police arrested the teacher, Ashok Dhole (43). The undated video shared multiple times on the social media shows the teacher of the junior college, affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, making remarks comparing gods of different religions as a part of a story-telling. It ends with a message that there is only one god and human beings have given multiple names to god.
Invisibilising Muslim heritage in syncretic traditions:
Amid protests by right-wing groups, the Quran is not recited as per the tradition of the annual car festival of Sri Channakeshava Swamy temple in Belur in Hassan district. The practice of reciting the Quran before the ‘rath’ is part of the tradition at the festival. But Hindu workers objected to the recitation alleging it is against the Hindu culture. The workers of Hindu outfits staged a protest on March 28 against the recitation and served an ultimatum to the authorities to withdraw the custom before April 3. Following threats, this festival, the Qazis limited it to the recitation of verses. Meanwhile, the workers of Hindu organisations shouted “Jai Shri Ram” slogans. After placing Shri Channakeshava Swami Utsav Murti on the chariot, the family of Syed Sajjad Bhasha Qadri of Doddamedur village stood on the steps of the temple and recited the Shloka as per tradition. After that the chariot festival started.
Invisibilising and de-legitimising History:
The Hindu right wrongly claims that India is Hindu Rashtra and the superiority of Hindu religion and heritage over other religions and culture. India, a land of diversity is celebrated for its syncretic traditions and shared culture. But in recent times, the right wing has been targeting schools and other institutions where the blend of all religions is visible. Historical figures including Muslim kings are being targeted and a smear campaign run against them.
In Assam especially, attempts are made to obliterate any historical references to Muslims. In fact, victory over “Muslim invaders” by non-Hindu kings is valorised. For instance, the Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Samiti (BISS) or Indian History Compilation Committee observed March 28 as Mahavijay Divas to mark the “great victory” of Kamarupa king Prithu’s forces over Khilji’s army in 1206. Promoting Kamarupa king Prithu is part of an RSS-backed body’s bid “to bring Indian history out of its imperial past and provide it with references from a national historical and cultural perspective (The Hindu, 2023)”.
The right wing argue that these kings were “Muslim kings” who invaded India to convert Hindus and desecrate Hindu temples and places of worships. That they were cruel and killed and raped Hindu women. These “Muslim kings” are used as a medium to mobilize Hindu youth and to besmirch the contribution of Muslims in Indian history and society. In Navi Mumbai, a Muslim youth was detained for using Mughal emperor Aurangzeb’s portrait as his WhatsApp profile picture. He was booked under Sections 298 (uttering words with deliberate intent to wound religious feelings) and 153A (promoting enmity between different groups on grounds of religion, race, place of birth, and residence) of the Indian Penal Code.
In another incident, the police in Kagal town in Maharashtra’s Kolhapur arrested Farukh Asalkar, a shopkeeper for allegedly posting a photo of 18th-century Mysore ruler Tipu Sultan on his social media account. This arrest comes against the backdrop of multiple incidents of violence in Kolhapur and Ahmednagar over posting images of Tipu Sultan and Mughal ruler Aurangzeb on social media.
Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswas Sarma claimed that Bagh Hazarika aka Ismail Siddiqui was an imaginary character. Bagh Hazarika was a famed warrior who belonged to a small village near Sivasagar. The king of Assam at the time, Chakradhwaj Singha was so fascinated by his heroic deeds that Ismail Siddique was made commander of 1,000 soldiers (Hazar means thousand). The legend of Ismail Siddiqui is well known and celebrated in Assam. But Sarma’s denial of his existence underscores the ruling dispensation’s attempt to erase the contribution of Muslims to Indian history (Borthakur, 2023).
Renaming of Places to Purge of “foreign” influence:
The disturbing trend of renaming continued in 2023 where names which sounded Mughal or Muslim were replaced by Hindi names. This, the right wing argues, is to purge the places of “foreign influence”. For instance, the Rashtrapati Bhavan gardens, popularly called the ‘Mughal Gardens’, were renamed Amrit Udyan on January 28, 2023. In Uttar Pradesh in particular there are strong demands to rename cities. There is a demand to rename Lucknow to Lakhanpur or Laxmanpur. Similarly, there are demands to rename Ghazipur district to Vishwamitra Nagar in honour of Maharishi Vishwamitra and Bahraich district as Maharaja Suldev Rajbhar Nagar. Aligarh’s name may be changed to Harigarh.
In Maharashtra, Aurangabad and Osmanabad cities have been renamed as Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar and Dharashiv respectively. Similarly, Maharashtra’s Ahmednagar is to be renamed as Ahilya Nagar. Ahilya Nagar will be dedicated to Ahilyabai Holkar who was the queen of the Maratha Empire and was born in Chondi village of Ahmednagar district.
Reclaiming places of worship as Hindu structures:
In Aurangabad, Maharashtra, the collector ordered a ban on enter in Jumma Mosque claiming the structure has an ‘appearance of a temple’. As per the trustees of the mosque, the mosque has been in existence for decades and the Maharashtra government had declared the structure of the masjid as an ancient and historical monument and is enlisted in the Schedule of protected monuments. However, in May in 2023, the Pandavwada Sangharsh Samiti in order to create disturbance in Jalgaon’s Erandol taluka, applied to the district collector claiming the ancient monument is having the “appearance of a mandir” and therefore the occupation of the Muslim community must be vacated, the plea said. The Samiti also sought for the illegal construction made by the petitioner trust to be removed and a madarsa run by the trustees also to be stopped.
The 150 years old Sunehri Mosque in New Delhi is sought to be demolished by New Delhi Municipal Corporation (NDMC) as it is deemed to be a traffic hazard. NDMC had issued a notice. As per the NDMC notice, the matter concerns traffic snarls in the area, and seems more of an unnecessary enforcement than an actual need. A similar notice had been served at the Mamun-Bhanja shrine at Faiz Road, Paharganj, which was demolished on August 20, 2023, in the dark, at 2:30 am. Before that, on April 23, two mazars (sacred tomb-shrines) near the Sunehri Bagh mosque were removed as part of an anti-encroachment drive. The imam of the mosque has approached the court to stay the demolition (Ahmed, 2023). — (Concluded)
For part of the report please click here.
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Centre for Study of Society and Secularism
